AREAS OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING RESEARCH
By Yoyo Surjakusumah
1.
What is research?
‘Research is a systematic approach to
finding answers to questions.’
2.
What are the areas
of language teaching research?
The broad areas of language teaching research
are : (1) the language learner and language learning proces; (2) the language
teacher and teaching; (3) the environmental contexts of language teaching and
learning; (4) the methodologies and organization of language teaching; (5)
language in general and the languages and related cultures and societies; (6)
historical studies of language teaching.
3.
What is
qualitative methodology or qualitative approach or naturalistic method or
ethnographic method?
Qualitative methodology is a research which is not intendedto set out to testhypotheses. A
researcher observes what is present with his focus, and consequently the data,
free to vary during the course of observation.
4.
What is
quantitative methodology or positivistic approach?
A quantitative study is best typified by an experiment designed to test a hypothesis through the
use of objective instruments and appropriate statistical analyses.
5.
What is longitudinal approach?
It is often called a case study in the second language
acquisition (SLA) field. It typically involves observing the development of
linguistic performance, usually the spontaneous speech of one subject, when the
speech data are collected at periodic intervals over a span of time.
6.
What are the characteristics of longitudinal approach?
There are at least three of the qualitative paradigm
attributes: (1) naturalistic (use of
spontaneous speech), (2) process
oriented (in that it takes place over time) and (3) ungeneralizable (very few subjects).
7.
What is cross sectional approach?
In cross sectional approach, the linguistic performance
of a larger number of subjects is
studied, and the performance data are usually collected at only one
session.
8.
What are the
characteristics of the cross-sectional
approach?
The characteristics of cross-sectional approach are obtrusive, controlled measurement (use of artificial tasks), outcome-oriented (in that it takes
place at only one point in time), and generalizable
(larger group of subjects).
9.
What
are kinds of second language acqusition
research methodology?
The methods arranged along a continuum
with the two paradigms (qualitative and quantitative) at either pole. (1)
introspection, (2) participant observation, (3) non-participant observation, (4)focused description, (5) pre-experimental, (6) quasi experimental,
(7) experimental.
10. What is an introspective study?
In introspective study, with the guidance from the researcher,
learners examine their own behaviour for
insights into second language acquisition.
11.
What
is participant observation study?
In participant observation,the researcher takes part in the activities
he is studying. He does not approach the study with any specific hypotheses
in mind, rather he takes copious note on
whatever he observes and experience.
12. What is non-participant observation?
In this studythe researcher observes activities without engaging in the activities he is studying.The
researcher does not entertain any hypothesis at
the outset of a study.
13. What is focused description?
Focused descriptive study is similar
to the obeservational studies.It is descriptive in nature. The researcher narrows the scope of his study to a particular set of variables.
14. What is descriptive studies?
‘Descriptive
studies may classify, order and correlate data seeking to describe relationships
that are discoverable in phenomena themselves’ (Van Dalen, in Cook 1965:
39, in Larsen-Freeman & Long,1991:17)
15. What is pre-experiment?
Pre-experiment : (1) Only group of subjects (no experimental group and no control group, and (2) subjects are not randomly designed. Pre-experimetal
designs can provide useful insights into SLA which later may be tested using more rigorous
procedures.One type of pre- experimental design is called one-group
pretest-postest design.For example, the study of the effect of intensive
English language study on attitudes, motivation and achievement.
16. What is quasi-experiment?
Quasi-experiment designs, is closer to
the true experiment in that one of two criteria of experimental design is met.Quasi-experimental designs do not require
random assignment of subjects to groups. Quasi experiments exist as a
compromise for those interested in studying human behaviour in naturally
occuring settings in which complete experimental control is difficult, if not impossible. Time
series designs are quasi-experiments since they improve upon the one- group
pres-test post-test design that was classified as pre-experimental. Subjects in
one group serve both as a control group and as an experimental group.
17. What is true experiment?
Experiments have two criteria: (1) there are at least two groups included in
the study, and a control group and an experimental group; and (2) subjects are
randomly assigned to one of those groups. The purpose of having the two
groups in the study is that if one group is treated in one manner (eg. Taught
by using direct method, and another in a different manner (eg. Taught by using
audiolingual method) and their post treatment behaviour differs, we conclude
that the behaviour differs as a consequence of their different treatments if
the two groups are comparable to start with.The basic idea of an experiment is
a powerful one.
18. What are instrumentation: production data elicitation?
Instruments designed to elicit
production data.
19. What are they referred to, when
instruments are used to collect linguistic production data?
They are referred to by a variety of
names: elicitation procedure,
elicitation device, technique for performance data, data collection or
data-gathering device, a taks or a test.
20. Mention some representative studies in
which the elicitation procedure has
been appropriated.
They are (1) reading aloud (Studies researching pronunciation in a second
language), (2) structured exercises
(transformation exercises, fill-in-the-blanks with the correct form,
sentence-rewrite, sentence-combining, and multiple choice), (3) completion
task, (4) elicited imitation
(to have the researcher read to the subjects a particular set of sentences
containing examples of the structure under study. The subject is asked to
imitate each sentence after it is read., (5) elicited translation, (6) guided
composition, (7) question and answer
–with stimulus, (8) reconstruction,
(9) communication games, (10) role play, (11) oral interview, (12) free
composition.
21. What is intuitional data elicitation procedure?
It is the procedure for
getting at learners’ intuitions.
22. What is the data obtained using
intuitional data elicitation procedure?
Some call it data on learners’
competence (the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of
his language) or metalinguistic judgment data or intutional data.
23. Mention the elicitation procedures
used to get at learner’s intuition!
They are: (1) error recognition and
correction, (2) grammaticality judgments, (3) Other judgement tasks, (4) card
scoring.
24. What is the instrumentation using of
miniature languages?
In this procedure subjects have been
exposed to a set of sentences of a miniature artificial language created by the
researcher. Mc Laughlin (1980 in Larsen Freeman & Long, 1991:35)) has made
the case for the use of miniature artificial languages to study the process of
second language acquisition.
25. Instrumentation has not only been used in SLA research to
elicit learner speech or intuitions. It has been used to research affective
variables such as attitudes and motivation as well. Mention five procedures
most commonly used to study this area.
They are: (1)
questionnaires, (2) sociometry, (3) matched guise technique, (4)
diary study, and
(5) focused introspection.
26. What are the instruments from other
disciplines?
They are: (1) various tests (from
psychology) to discover subjects’ cognitive styles, various personality
assessment measures (from psychology), dichotic listening tests and eye
movement observation to research brain function and hemisphericity (from
neurolinguistics).
27. What did the prevailing view hold
about language proficiency?
The view held that language
proficiency can be divided into unrelated skills(listening, speaking, reading
and writing) and knowledge of language components (vocabulary, phonology and
grammar).
28. What is Oller view (1976) the language
proficiency?
His hypothesizes that a language
proficiency is a unitary and indivisible trait, i.e. it cannot be partitioned
into distinct components. Oller (Oller and Perkins1978; Oller 1979) claimed
this global proficiency factor was strongly related to IQ.
29. What is CALP ?
CALP is
cognitive/academic language proficiency (Cummins, 1980: 176)
30. What is BICS?
It is a second, independent dimension
of language proficiency which is called basic interpersonal skills, which
consist of accent, oral fluency and sociolinguistic competence.
31. What are three components to
communicative competence (Canale and Swain, 1980)?
They are
grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence.
32. What does a speaker’s having strategic
competence mean?
It means a speaker has a repertoire of
communication strategies to invoke to compensate for breakdowns in
communication.
33. What are five areas of communicative
competence ?
They are linguistic
form, pragmatic/functional competence, propositional content (meaning),
interactional patterns and strategic competence.
34. What are the examples of interactional
patterns?
They are
conversational rules governing how speakers procure and relinquish turns.
35. What are the other four components of
communicative competence (Canale, 1983)?
They are (1) grammatical competence,
(2) sociolinguistic competence, (3) discourse competence, and (4) strategic
competence.
36. What are two superordinate types of
competence and four subordinate types?
They are organizational and pragmatic
(superordinate) and grammatical, discourse, illucutionary and
sociolinguistic.(subordinate).
37. What is an acquisition point?
Acquisition (of a form, only, not its
function) means the first appearance of that form in the learner’s language.
38. What are the differences between a
test and task?
Tests are devised to measure what the
learner knows and does not know of the target language. A test is normative. A
task is devised to reveal what the learner knows: ‘the rulees he is using and
the systems and categories he is working with (Corder, 1981:60) We may be able
to infer something about the learner’s rules, systems and categories from test
results.
39. What are types of analyses of SLA data used in an
attempt to come to a better understanding of the second language acquisition
process?
They are: (1) contrastive analysis, (2) error analysis,
(3) performance analysis, and (4) discourse analysis
40. What is contrastive analysis?
Contrastive analysis is conducted by systematically
comparing two languages. “The most efficient materials are those that are based
upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared
with a parallel description of the native language of the learner’ (Charles
Fries, 1945: 9) Lado claimed that ‘those elements that are similar to his
native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different
will be difficult’ (1957: 2) ‘The greater the difference between two systems,
i.e. the more numerous the mutually exclusive forms and patterns in each, the
greater is the learning problem and the potential area of interference’
Weinrich (1953: 1).
41. What was the view of learning of behaviorism?
The
behaviorists held that language acquisition was a product of habit formation.
42. What is error analysis?
It is the procedure to detecting the
source of error, namely error analysis.
43. What is strong version of the contrastive analysis?
The strong version involved predicting errors in second
language learning based upon an a priori contrastive analysis of L1 and L2, and
as we have seen, the predictions are not always borne out.
44. What is a weak version of CAH?
It is the method in which the
researchers start with learner errors and explain at least a subset of them by
pointing to the similarities and differences between the two languages.
45. What are the types of error?
There are Interlingua inference, Intralingua
(overgeneralization), simplification (redundancy reduction), communication
based, and induced errors
46. What is performance analysis?
Performance analysis is an analysis of the learners’ I
(first) L performance, not limited to analyzing the errors they commit.
47. Whatis a morpheme study?
It is one of performance analysis (PA) The study of
scoring protocols of subjects’ speech for suppliance of grammatical morphemes
in obligatory context, i.e. contexts where the TL requires a particular
linguistic structure, such as plural marker at the end of a common English noun
preceded by a cardinal number.
48. What is developmental sequence?
It is another type of PA.
Investigation of developmental sequences has involved a longitudinal study in
which the speech of one or more subjects is recorded and the transcripts are
analyzed for particular structures
.
49. What are learner’s strategies?
Another contribution of the developmental studies was
the identification of strategies employed by SL learners.
50. What is the study of acquisition of forms and functions?
It is the study of the acquisition of forms and
function of TL by the learners. It is obvious that one cannot generally claim
that the function is acquired before the form or that the form is acquired
before the function’ ‘Learners do not learn all the functions of a particular
form at the same time’ (Bahns and Wode, 1980).
51. What is formulaic utterances study?
The study of how the formulaic utterances
acquisition affects SLA.
52. What is discourse analysis?
It is the study of input to the learner.
53. What is conversational analysis?
Conversational analysis is one sub-area
of discourse analysis.
54. What are other applications of discourse analysis?
Discourse analysis has allowed the investigation of the
relationship between NS input and learner IL forms. Another quality of
discourse analysis applied to SLA is that researchers are concerned not only
with how IL forms evolve, but how learners learn how to use the forms
appropriately for a particular discourse function as well.
55. What are SLA areas of investigation using discourse
analysis?
They are: (1) foreigner talk discourse, (2) coherence
and cohesion (how SL learners learn to comprehend and produce these texts,
contrastive rhetorical analysis), (3) communicative strategies, (4) contextual
analysis, (5) classroom discourse analysis, (6) discourse/functional analysis,
(7) speech act analysis.
56. What are factors that have an influence on the SLA
process?
They are: age, language aptitude, social-psychological
factors, personality, cognitive style, hemisphere specialization, learning
strategies, and few others.
57. What are age-causes of related differences in SLA?
They are: (1) social-psychological explanation, (2)
cognitive explanation, (3) input explanation, (4) neurological explanation.
58. What is
aptitude?
Aptitude as a concept corresponds to the notion that in
approaching a particular learning task or program, the individual may be
thought of as possessing some current state of capability of learning that task
– if the individual is motivated, and has the opportunity of doing so. That
capability is presumed to depend on some combination of more or less enduring
characteristics of the individual (Carroll, 1981:84).
59. What are the four independent abilities of foreign
language aptitude?
They are: (1) phonetic coding ability – an ability to
identify distinct sounds, toform associations between those sounds and symbols
representing them, and to retain these associations; (2) grammatical
sensitivity – the ability to recognize the grammatical functions of words (or
other linguistic entities) in sentence structures; (3) rote learning ability
for foreign language materials –
the ability to learn associations between sound and meanings rapidly and
efficiently, and to retain these associations; and (4) inductive language
learning ability – the ability to infer or induce the rules governing a set of
language materials, given samples of language materials that permit such inferences (Carroll, 1962 in 1981: 105)
60. What is MLAT?
It is a test of language aptitude. It is designed by
Carroll and Sapon to measure foreign language aptitude in adolescents and
adults. It stands for Modern Language Aptitude Test.
61. What are the five subtests of MLAT?
They are: (1) number learning, (2) phonetic script, (3)
spelling clues, (4) words in sentences, and (5) paired associates
62. .What is another well-known language aptitude test?
It is Pimsleur’s Language Aptitude
Battery (LAB) (1966a) which is designed for adolescents.
63. What does the LAB test consist of?
It consists of six parts: (1) grade point average, (2)
interest, (3) vocabulary, (4) language analysis, (5) sound discrimination, and
(6) sound-symbol correspondence. These six parts are designed to tap the three
components of language aptitude Pimsleur alleges to exist (1966:182): (1)
verbal intelligence, which measure familiarity with words and an ability to
reason analytically about verbal material
(van Els et.al.1984), (2) motivation, (3) auditory ability.
64. What is CALP?
It is Cummins’s (1979) cognitive/academic
language proficiency.
65. What is BICS?
It is Cummins’s basic interpersonal
communication skills.
66. What are social-psychological factors?
They are motivation (integrative motivation and
instrumental motivation), Attitude( parents, peers, learning situation,
teachers, and etnicity).
67. What are the factors of personality?
They are: (1) self-esteem, (2) extroversion, (3)
anxiety,(4) risk taking,(5)sensitivity to rejection, (6) empathy, (7)
inhibition, (8) tolerance of ambiguity.
68. What is cognitive style?
It is closely aligned with personality, the preferred
way in which individuals process information or approach a task.
69. What are the kinds of cognitive style?
They are (1) field independence/ dependence, (2)
category width, (3)
reflectivity/impulsivity, (4) aural/visual, (5) analytic/gestalt.
70. What is lateralization?
Lateralization is a process whereby each of the two
hemispheres of the brain becomes increasingly specialized. In almost all
right-handed individuals, and approximately two-thirds of left-handed
individuals, the left hemisphere specializes in logical, analytic thought which
is processed linearly, e.g. subjects can report which of the stimuli came first
in a sequence. The lefthemisphere is also responsible for abstraction from a
field (Harnett 1975).
71. What are learning strategies?
Learning strategies means the ‘techniques or devices
which a learner may use to acquire knowledge’
72. What are the other terms for learning strategies?
They are: ‘learning behaviors’ (Wesche, 1977);
‘cognitive processes’ (Rubin, 1981); ‘tactics’ (Seliger, 1984).
73. What are good language learners?
Good language learners have the following
characteristics: (1) those who willing and accurate guessers who have a strong
desire to communicate, and will attempt to do so even at the risk of appearing
foolish, (2) they are highly motivated to communicate, they also tend to form
and meaning, (3) they practice and monitor their own speech and the speech of
others.
74. What are the other factors have claimed to affect SLA?
They are: (1) memory, awareness, will, (2)language
disability (if students suffered from specific language disorders such as
dyslexia or strephosymbolia, (3) interest, (4) sex, (5) birth order, (6) prior
experience
THEORIES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
75. What are the theories in second language acquisition?
There are three major classes of theories in second
language acquisition:nativist, environmentalist and interactionist.
76. What is a set of laws?
A common form theories, when the observations have been
repeated and patterns consistent that of a set of laws.
77. What are the purposes of theory?
Theories are involving a claim to explain the
phenomena, or the way they interact. And aims at an understanding of phenomena
.
78. When is the generalization taken?
The statements would have the status of generalization
or of laws, depending on the number and (especially) the uniformity of the
observations which supported them, as well as on the degree of consensus among
experts as to their truth. Generalizations allow for exceptions, laws do not.
This form of theory is known as the set-of-laws form.
79. What is a hypothesis?
It is a prediction about relationship among variables
which not only wastestable, but repeatedly was tested against data, i.e. as a
statement which was empirically fallible.
80. What is by ‘the studies are still only descriptive?’
The ‘issue’ addressed appearing to have
occurred to investigator after the data were collected.
81. What arecorrelation studies?
The studies which purport to resolve
issue, as opposed to providin explanatory survey of them.
82. What is a theory?
A theory is a more or less formal, more or less
explicit, synthesis of what is ‘known’ at a given point in time about some
natural phenomena, such as the factors involved in SLA.
83. What is knowledge?
‘Knowledge’, and hence a theory, in other words,
sometimes simply refers to what has been discovered through empirical
observation.
84. What are nativist theories?
Nativist theories are those which purport to explain
acquisition by positing an innate biological endowment that makes learning
possible.
85. What is Chomsky’s Universal Grammar?
Universal Grammar (UG) claim the idea that humans are
innately (i.e. genetically) endowed with universal language-specific knowledge.
86. According to Chomkyan view, the input is deficient, or
“poor” in two ways. What are they?
First, it is claimed to be ‘degenerate’ in the sense
that it is marred by performance features therefore an inadequate data base for
language learning; second, and more serious, however, the input is ‘degenerate’
in the sense that it is inadequate in various ways.
87. What is Krashen’s Monitor Theory?
Krashen (1976) claimed that two separate knowledge
systems underlay SL performance. The first and most important, the acquired
system,, and thesecond and less important knowledge system, the learned system,
was the product of formal instruction.
88. What is the acquisition-Learning Hypothesis?
It states that there are two independent
ways of learning an SL: acquisition and learning.
89. What is ‘acquisition’?
Acquisition refers to the subconscious process used by children
developingtheir first language.
90. What is learning?
Learning is a conscious process, which results in a
separate system of simple grammar rules, or knowledge about the SL.
91. What is the Natural Order Hypothesis?
The Natural Order Hypothesis says that SL rules are
acquired in apredictable order, one apparently not determined solely by
linguistic complexity, and certainly not by the order in which the items appear
in teaching syllabuses.
92. What is the Monitor Hypothesis?
The Monitor Hypothesis encapsulate the relationship
posited between the acquired and learned systems during SL performance.
93. What is the Input Hypothesis?
The Input Hypothesis attempts to explain
how a learner acquires an SL.
94. What do environmentalist theories hold?
Environmentalist theories hold that an organism’s
nurture, or experience, are of more importance to development than its nature
or innate contributions
95. What are the examples of environmental theory?
They are the various forms of behaviourist and
neo-behaviouris stimulus- response learning theories, such as those of Skinner
(1957)
96. What are interactions theories of SLA?
They invoke both innate and
environmentalist factor to explain language learning.
97. What is functional-typological syntactic analysis?
It is an approach
which is functionalist in its view that syntax ‘emanate[s] from
properties of human discourse, and typological in its consideration of a
diverse body of languages, not simply a single language or language family.
98. What does Givon claim?
He claims that syntactic change is driven primarily by
psycholinguistic and pragmatic principles relating to speech perception and
production in face-to-face interaction.
99. Why is it multidimensional model?
It is called the ‘multidimensional’ model because the
original ZISA data revealed a second dimension to SLA, along which learners
differed, the variation axis
100. What is ZISA?
It is one of the most important bodies of SLA research
to date is that emanating from the ZweitsprachenwerbItalienischer und SpanischerArbeiter
(ZISA) project, conducted chiefly at the University of Hamburg in the late
1970s under the direction of JurgenMeisel.
101. What is the major goal for many SLA researchers?
It is to provide a sound
psycholinguistic basis for SL teaching.
102. What are the various skills involved in the mastery of
a language?
They are receptive skills, Listening
(understanding the spoken language) andreading (understanding the written
language); and productive skills –
speaking and writing.
103. To be able to use language to convey
thoughts/intentions/wishes/ information etc. a person needs a mastery of
various elements. What are the language elements?
The individual sounds, which are arranged in words (the vocabulary, or lexis,
of the language), which are related to each other in utterances by structure
(the grammar of a language).
VARIABEL
1.
Variabel. Salah
satukonsep yang sangatpentingdalampenelitianadalahvariabel.
Variabeladalahkonsep - kata benda yang berartivariasidalamsatukelasobjek,
misalnyakursi, jeniskelamin, warnamata, pencapaian, motivasi, ataukecepatanlari.
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satunyaialahdenganmembedakanantaravariabelkuantitatifdankategori.
2.
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“kurang” atau “lebih”, dankitadapatmemberiangkapadaindividuatauobjek yang
berbedauntukmemperlihatkanberapabanyakvariabel yang merekamiliki. Misalnya:
tinggi, beratatauminat orang dapatdiberiangka.
3.
Variabelkuantitatifdapatdibagilagimenjadi unit-unit
yang lebihkecil. “Panjang”, misalnya, dapatdiukurdalam meter atau mil, yard,
kaki, inci, dan lain-lain.
4.
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tetapisecarakualitatifberbeda, misalnyawarnamata, jeniskelamin, keyakinan
agama, pekerjaan, posisidalam main bola, dankebanyakan “perlakukan” atau
“metode” penelitian.
5.
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yang dimanipulasi, yaituvariabel yang
dipilihdanditelitiuntukmenilaiakibat yang mungkin di
timbulkannyaterhadapvariabel (-variabel) lainnya. Variabelbebasdiasumsikanmempunyaipengaruh,
atauefekterhadapvariabel lain.
6.
Variabel yang
diasumsikanmemperolehakibatataupengaruhdarivariabelbebasdisebutvariabelterikat
(dependent variable).
7.
Variabeldankonstruk.
Sebuahvariabeladalahapa yang
dapatkitaamatiataukuantifikasidarikarakteristikataukemampuanmanusia/subjek yang
bersangkutan, sedangkankonstrukadalahkarakteristikataukemampuansebenarnya, yang
abstrak, darimanusia/subjek yang digambarkanataudiwakilivariabel. MisalnyaprofisiensidalambahasaInggris,
adalahsesuatu yang dalamkepalamanusia, daninisulitdiamatidanbisaberbedadaripengamatantidaklangsung
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skortessebagaihasiltesprofisiensibahasaInggris).
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dapatdigambarkandenganskortesprofisiensibahasaInggris (apa yang
dapatkitaamatidandapatkitaukurdarikonstruk yang kitacari).
Namunjanganlupabahwaskorbukankemampuantetapihanyacerminandarikemampuan.
8.
Operasionalisasi.
Operasionaliasivariabelmerupakankesempatanbagipenelitiuntukmenjelaskanbagaimanasetiapvariabel
yang sedangdidefinisikanberkaitandengankonstruk yang dicari.
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Padadasarnya, variabelharusmerupakandefinisi yang didasarkanpadakarakteristik
yang bisadiamati, bisaditesataudiuji, ataudikuantifikasi.
Makasebuahdefinisioperasionalharusunik, atauekslusif.
Definisioperasionaljanganbisadipakaiuntukkonstruk lain. Contohkonstruk “overall proficiency in English as a foreign
language” masihmerupakanabstraksi yang luas.
Untukmenjadikankonstrukinimenjadibentuksebuahvariabel,
penelitiharusmemilihdenganmendefinisikannyamenjadi “overall proficiency in
English as a foreign language as measured
by the Test of English as a Foreign Language”.
Hasilsuatupenelitiantidakakanlogisbilavariabel-variabelnyadidefinisikansecarakeliruataukuarngbaik.
9.
Variabel
moderator. Variabel moderator adalahjenistertentudarivariabelbebas yang
dipilihpenelitiuntukmenentukanbagaimanahubunganantaravarieblbebasdanvariabelterikatdipengaruhi,
ataudimodifikasi, olehvariabel moderator. Perbedaanterpentingantaravariabelbebasdanvariabel
moderator
terletakpadabagimanapenelitimemandangsetiapvariabeldalampenelitiannya.
Variabelbebaskepentingannyaterletakpadahubunganlangsungdenganvariabelterikat,
sedangkanvariabel moderator terletakpadapengaruhdarihubungantersebut.
10. Variabelkontrol. Variabelkontroladalahvariabel yang
telahdipilih agar tetap, netral,
atauhilangsehinggavariabeltersebuttidakakanmempengaruhipenelitian
11. Variabel intervening. Variabel intervening, yang
terjadi di antaraduakejadian, adalahvariabelabstrak, label teoretishubunganatau
proses yang menghubungkanvariabelbebasdanvariabelterikat.
kedudukanmasing-masingvariable
dalampenelitian (kuantitatif)
 |
12. Dalamgambar di
atashubungansentraldalampenelitianadalahantaravariabelbebasdanvariabelterikat.
Tandapanahmemperlihatkanarahfokusdalampikirandanrancanganpenelitian.
13. Penelitiandirancanguntukmenentukanpengaruhvariabelbebasterhadapvariabelterikat.
THE LIST OF STRUCTURAL POINTS
(as
dependent variables)
Beginners
1.
To be { Affirmative; Interrogative; Negative;
Question tag} also question words: Who? What? Where? Why?
2.
Indefinite article
with occupations: I’m a
doctor.
3.
This/that,
these/those
4.
Singular and
plural nouns, regulars + irregulars.
5.
Imperative and
negative imperative.
6.
Adjectives and
word order.
7.
Present
Continuous: He’s playing.
8.
To have (got).
9.
(a) Possessive
adjectives, e.g. It’s my book.(b) ‘Whose?’
10. Possessive pronouns.
11. Genitive with people (singular and plural), e.g. It’s
Susan’s. The Browns’.
Genitive with things, e.g. The back of the car.
12. Present Simple: He works, etc.
13. Frequency adverbs: often, never, sometimes, always,
etc.
14. There is/there are.
15. There’s a/ it’s a.
16. Some/any/question and negative.
17. Simple prepositions.
18. I can.
19. The time.
20. Was/Were
21. Simple Past tense
22. Simple Past tense in irregular verbs.
23. The weather (a) as adjectives: It’s cloudy, rainy,
fine, etc. (b) The weather as Present Continuous/Present Simple contrast: It’s
raining/ It rains a lot.
24. Future with ‘going to’.
25. Adverb formation + ly.
26. Adverb order (manner, place, time)
He works {hard; at home; every evening}
27. A lot/much/many.
28. A little/few.
29. Future + will + negative.
30. Questions + shall we.
31. More complicated frequency adverbs + revision Present
Simple, e.g. hardly ever, nearly, always, etc.
32. Past Continuous
Contrast:
Past Simple + while
While he
was writing, the door opened.
33. 1st (open) Conditional: if it rains we’ll go
to the cinema.
Elementary
34. Present Perfect + ‘just’.
35. Present Perfect + for} – simple and continuous
36. Present Perfect + since } – simple and continuous
37. Present Perfect contrasted with Past Simple: I’ve been
there/I was there yesterday.
38. Present Perfect + ‘already’.
39. Present Perfect Question + ‘yet’.
40. Too/enough.
41. Simple (short-word) comparatives.
42. Long-word comparatives + ‘more’.
43. Simple superlatives.
44. Long-word superlatives + ‘most’ + in… + of the three etc.
45. Relatives…who (subject)That (subject)Omission (object),
after ‘the one’, ‘the ones’.
46. Used to e.g. Did you use to? I never used to.
47. Must/mustn’t
48. Must/needn’t.
49. As…as + adjectives.
50. As …as = adverbs.
51. The same…as.
52. Can/will be able to.
53. Want to …
54. Want + Acc. + to.
55. Prepositions with time.
56. Reported commands, e.g. He told me not to …
57. Reported commands in negative, e.g. He told me not to…
58. Must/will have to.
59. Must/had to.
60. May, permission and possibility.
61. Phrasal verbs (simple) + word order in pronouns.
62. Present Continuous for Future.
63. Although.
64. Infinitive of purpose.
65. So that.
66. For + gerund.
67. Unless + 1st Conditional.
68. Temporal conjunctions (a) Present simple – When I go..
(b)
Present Perfect – When I’ve been…
69. Need + gerund
Intermediate
70. 2nd Conditional: If I went to Russia, I’d
visit Moscow.
71. Adjective and infinitive: It’s pleasant to live in the
country.
72. Reported speech – Future to Conditional- Present to Past, etc
73. Reported questions (a) with Question. Word (b) with if/whether.
74. Adjective phrases + participle, e.g. A man carrying a
gun…
75. Noun clauses, e.g. I don’t know what to do/how to say
it, etc.
76. Passive – all simple tenses.all continuous (+ being)
tenses
77. Passive Infinitive + can, must, should, need to, etc.
78. He must be a policeman (log. Conclusion)
79. Think, hope, suppose, expect + so.
80. Should}Or } for obligation
81. Ought }
82. Use of ‘the’ Abstracts
Plurals.
Uncountable
Meals
Countries
Hospital/ prison/ bed, etc after
prepositions.
83. Reflexive verbs.
84. Past Perfect (a) after certain conjunctions, e.g. after, before, because, as soon as.
(b) following ‘realized’, ‘remembered’, ‘visited’.
85. Past Perfect Continuous.
86. Verbs + gerund, e.g. finish/enjoy, etc.
87. Verbs + infinitive (+to).
88. Verbs + preposition + gerund.
89. Future Continuous.
90. Say/tell.
91. Difference between so + adjectives and such + noun.
92. Have + do (habit), e.g. I don’t have lunch.
93. Inversion…SO (a) can I. (b) do I.
94. Inversion …Neither do I.
95. Future Perfect Simple.
96. Future Perfect Continuous.
97. Word order + adverb phrases (manner, place, time)
Advanced
98. Be/get used to + gerund in various tenses.
99. Uses of either/neither.
100. Make (= construct).
101. Do (activity).
102. Suggest ( + subjunctive) in Present + Past.
103. {I meant to …(but)… {I was going to …
104. (a) {am} { meant/supposed} to… (b) {was}{ meant/supposed}
to …
105. Let + object + verb.
106. Make + object + verb. (Contrast: be made to do).
107. (a) I wish} +_ seq. of tenses. (b) If only} + seq. of
tenses.
108. 3rd Conditional.
109. Remember + ing}
+ to}
110. Try + ing} +to }
111. Stop + ing} + to)
112. He must have gone out.
113. He must have been going out.
114. He can’t have {gone
{been going out.
115. He might have {gone
{been going out.
116. (a) needn’t have, (b) didn’t need to.
117. Surely/certainly.
118. Fairly/rather.
119. It’s {high} time we left.{about} time we left.
120. I’d rather you took ()my old umbrella).
121. I saw a man cross/crossing the road.
READING FOR ENJOYMENT
(as
readability level)
Beginners:
Longman Structural Readers à Stage I
Mid
Elementary : (1) Longman Structural Readers à Stage 2 (2) O.U.P
Elementary/Early Intermediate: (1) New Method
Supplementary Readersà Stage 4 (2)
Longman Structural Readers à Stage 2/3
Mid
Intermediate: Longman Structural Readersà Stage ¾
Late
Intermediate: (1) Collier Macmillan
(2) Hienemann
Educational Books.
(3) Longman Structural Readersà Stage 6
(4) New Method
Supplementary Readersà Stage 3
Intermediate/Advanced: (1) Hutchinson Educational Books
(2) Penguin
(3) Longman Simplified English Series
(4) Macmillan
Advanced:
(1) O.U.P. (2) Penguin
VOCABULARY
(as
dependent variables)
1.
Choosing vocabulary
(1) Commonest words
(2) Students’ needs.
(3) Students’ language
(4) Word building
(5) Topic areas
(6) Cross reference
(7) Related structures(Haycraft, 1976:47)
2.
Presenting new vocabulary (as independent variable)
(1) In context
(2) Create a context
(3) Descriptions or definition
(4) Outside the classroom
(5) Objects
(6) Drawing
(7) Mime
(8) Opposites
(9) Synonyms
(10) Translation
(11) Picture/flashcard
(12) Wall charts
(13) Word games
3.
Combining vocabulary teaching with structure and pronunciation revision
4.
Passive vocabulary
5.
Phrases, idioms and colloquial expressions
AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
(as
independent variable)
1.
Objects
2.
People
3.
The blackboard
4.
Flash cards
5.
Wall charts
6.
Pictures for oral
composition
7.
Overhead projector
transparencies
8.
Slides and film
strips
9.
Film Video
10. Tape recorders
11. The language laboratory
12. The computer
13. The internet
TEACHING PRONUNCIATION
(as
dependent variables)
Static
forms
1.
Word Stress
2.
Sounds
3.
Consonants
(bi-labial, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar –voiced/voiceless, plosive,
affricate, fricative, nasal, lateral).
4.
Vowels (tongue
level, part of tongue, length, lips)
5.
Diphthongs
6.
The phonetic
alphabet
7.
Word linking
Expressive
forms
1.
Sentence stress
2.
Unstressed
syllables and words – Weak forms
3.
Voice range
4.
Longer sentences
5.
Intonation pattern
6.
Tone and tempo
7.
Fluency
LISTENING PRACTICE
(as
independent variables)
1.
Distinguishing
between key sound, stress, and intonation patterns
2.
Quick questions
3.
Comprehension
passages
4.
Broadcasts
5.
Lectures
6.
Dictations
SPEAKING PRACTICE
(as
independent variables)
1.
Maximise
student-talking
(1) Pair-work and group-work
(2) Information gaps and the jigsaw principle
(3) The Pyramid (Haycraft,1978:82)
(4) Find two people in a crowd with something in common.
2.
Dialogues
3.
Chain stories
4.
Mime stories
5.
Telling jokes
6.
Talk/lecturettes
7.
Conversation
8.
Role playing and
improvisation
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN LANGUAGE
TEACHING
(as
independent variables)
1.
Approach, method
and techniques (Anthony, 1963)
2.
The Oral Approach
and Situational Language Teaching
3.
The Audio-lingual
Method
4.
Communicative
Language Teaching
5.
Total Physical
Response
6.
The Silent Way
7.
Community Language
Learning
8.
The Natural
Approach
9.
Suggestopedia
Language in general and the languages and related cultures and societies
A.
Sociolinguistics
B.
Psycholinguistics
C.
Semantics
D.
Syntax
E.
ESP
F.
Interpreting
G.
Literature
H.
Translation
I.
Curriculum
J.
Evaluation
K.
Etc.
WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
1.
The seven steps of
a research proposal:
Step 1: Formulation of a research problem
Step 2: Conceptualization of a research design
Step 3: Construction of a research tool (instrument)
Step 4: Selection of sample
Step 5: Data collection
Step 6: Data analysis
Step 7 Report writing
2.
Step 1:
Formulation of a Research Problem is the first and most important step in the
research process. It is like identifying your destination before undertaking a
journey. A research problem identifies your destination. What is that you
intend to research. It is extremely important that you evaluate your research
problem within the context of the financial resources at your disposal, the
time available, and you own and your research supervisor’s expertise and
knowledge in the field of study.
3.
Step 2: The most
important thing about research is the use of appropriate methods in systematic
way. When selecting a research design, it is important to ensure that it is
valid, workable, and manageable.
4.
Step 3: A research
tool is a means of collecting information for your study. For example,
questionnaires, interview schedules, observation forms and interview guides.
5.
Step 4: The accuracy of your research results
largely depends upon the way in which you select your sample. Sampling theory is
guided by two principles: (1) the avoidance of bias in the selection of a
sample, (2) the attainment of maximum precision for a given outlay of resources
6.
Step 5: Many
methods could be used to gather the needed information.
7.
Step 6: Before
analyzing your data, you need to take the following steps: (1) Editing,
checking the questionnaires/interview schedules for incompleteness and
inconsistencies, (2) Development of a codebook, developing a set of rules to
classify responses and giving the numerical value, (3) Coding of data.
Assigning numerical values to responses
8.
Step 7: Writing
the report is the last step in the research process
CONTENT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A
research proposal should outline the various tasks that you plan to undertake
to fulfill your research objectives. It should contain:
1.
A statement of the
objectives of the study
2.
A list of
hypotheses, if you are testing any
3.
The research
design which you are proposing to use
4.
The setting of
your study
5.
The research
instrument(s) that you are planning to use
6.
Information on
sample size and sampling design
7.
Information on
data processing procedures
8.
An outline of the
proposed chapters for the report
9.
The study’s
(research) problems and limitation
10. A proposed time frame.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH
PROPOSALAND RESEARCH REPORT
|
Research Proposal
1.
A research
proposal communicates a researcher’s plan for a study.
2.
A research
report communicates what actually done in a study, and what resulted.
3.
The main body is
the largest section of a proposal or a report and generally includes (1) the problem to be investigated
(including the statement of the problem or question, the research hypotheses
and variables, and the definition of the terms); (2) the review of
literature; (3) the procedures (including a description of the sample, the
instruments to be used, the research design, the procedures to be followed,
and the description and a justification of the statistical procedures used-
for quantitative); (4) and a budget of expected cost (for formal
proposal).
4.
The essential
difference between a research proposal and a research report is that a
research report states what was done rather than what will be done and
includes the actual results of the study. Thus, in a report, a description of
the findings pertinent to each of the research hypotheses or questions is
presented, along with a discussion by the researcher of what the findings of
the study imply for overall knowledge and current practice.
5.
Normally, the
final section of a report is the offering of some suggestions for further
research. All sections of a research proposal or a research report should be
consistent with one another.
|
THE
CORRELATION BETWEEN STUDENTS’ SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND THEIR ENGLISH
ACHIEVEMENT.
Is
there any correlation between students’ social economic background and their
English achievement?
Ho:
There is no correlation between students’ social economic background and their
English achievement.
H1:
There is a correlation betweenstudents’ social economic background and their
English achievement.
Accepted
or rejected?
Correlation
: Using statistical interpretation, for example The pearson product-moment
correlation coefficient. To test the null hypothesis of no significant
relationship (H0 : r xy = 0) at r < ,01.
COMPARING
MEANS
The
comparison between teaching ….. by using …. And
….At ….
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