AREAS OF
LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING RESEARCH
By Yoyo
Surjakusumah
What is
research?
‘Research is a systematic approach to
finding answers to questions.’
What are the
areas of language teaching research?
The broad areas of language teaching research are : (1) the language
learner and language learning proces; (2) the language teacher and teaching;
(3) the environmental contexts of language teaching and learning; (4) the
methodologies and organization of language teaching; (5) language in general
and the languages and related cultures and societies; (6) historical studies of
language teaching.
What is
qualitative methodology or qualitative approach or naturalistic method or ethnographic
method?
Qualitative
methodology is a research which is not intended to set out to test hypotheses.
A researcher observes what is present with his focus, and consequently the
data, free to vary during the course of observation.
What is
quantitative methodology or positivistic approach?
A
quantitative study is best typified by an experiment designed to test a
hypothesis through the use of objective instruments and appropriate statistical
analyses.
What is
longitudinal approach?
It is often
called a case study in the second language acquisition (SLA) field. It
typically involves observing the development of linguistic performance, usually
the spontaneous speech of one subject, when the speech data are collected at
periodic intervals over a span of time.
What are the
characteristics of longitudinal approach?
There are at
least three of the qualitative paradigm attributes: (1) naturalistic (use of
spontaneous speech), (2) process oriented (in that it takes place over time)
and (3) ungeneralizable (very few subjects).
What is
cross sectional approach?
In cross
sectional approach, the linguistic performance of a larger number of subjects
is studied, and the performance data are usually collected at only one session.
What are the
characteristics of the cross-sectional approach?
The
characteristics of cross-sectional approach are obtrusive, controlled
measurement (use of artificial tasks), outcome-oriented (in that it takes place
at only one point in time), and generalizable (larger group of subjects).
What are kinds of second language acqusition research methodology?
The methods arranged along a continuum with the two paradigms (qualitative
and quantitative) at either pole. (1) introspection, (2) participant
observation, (3) non-participant observation, (4) focused description, (5) pre-experimental, (6) quasi experimental, (7) experimental.
What is an introspective study?
In introspective study, with the guidance from the researcher,
learners examine their own behaviour for
insights into second language acquisition.
What is participant observation study?
In participant observation,the researcher takes part in the activities he
is studying. He does not approach the study with any specific hypotheses in mind, rather he takes copious note on whatever
he observes and experience.
What is non-participant observation?
In this study the researcher observes activities without engaging in
the activities he is studying.The
researcher does not entertain any hypothesis at
the outset of a study.
What is focused description?
Focused descriptive study is similar to the obeservational studies.It is
descriptive in nature. The researcher narrows the scope of his study to
a particular set of variables.
What is descriptive studies?
‘Descriptive studies may classify, order and correlate data seeking to
describe relationships that are discoverable in phenomena themselves’ (Van
Dalen, in Cook 1965: 39, in Larsen-Freeman & Long,1991:17)
What is pre-experiment?
Pre-experiment : (1) Only group of subjects (no experimental group and no control group, and (2) subjects are
not randomly designed. Pre-experimetal
designs can provide useful insights into SLA which later may be tested using more rigorous
procedures.One type of pre- experimental design is called one-group
pretest-postest design.For example, the study of the effect of intensive
English language study on attitudes, motivation and achievement.
What is quasi-experiment?
Quasi-experiment designs, is closer to the true experiment in that one of
two criteria of experimental design is met.Quasi-experimental designs do not
require random assignment of subjects to groups. Quasi experiments exist as a compromise
for those interested in studying human behaviour in naturally occuring settings
in which complete experimental control
is difficult, if not impossible. Time series designs are quasi-experiments
since they improve upon the one- group pres-test post-test design that was
classified as pre-experimental. Subjects in one group serve both as a control
group and as an experimental group.
What is true experiment?
Experiments have two criteria: (1) there are at least two groups included
in the study, and a control group and an experimental group; and (2) subjects
are randomly assigned to one of those groups. The purpose of having the two
groups in the study is that if one group is treated in one manner (eg. Taught
by using direct method, and another in a different manner (eg. Taught by using
audiolingual method) and their post treatment behaviour differs, we conclude
that the behaviour differs as a consequence of their different treatments if
the two groups are comparable to start with.The basic idea of an experiment is
a powerful one.
What are instrumentation: production data elicitation?
Instruments designed to
elicit production data.
What are they referred to, when instruments are used to collect linguistic
production data?
They are referred to by a variety of names: elicitation procedure,
elicitation device, technique for performance data, data collection or
data-gathering device, a taks or a test.
Mention some representative studies in which the elicitation procedure has
been appropriated.
They are (1) reading aloud (Studies researching pronunciation in a second
language), (2) structured exercises (transformation exercises, fill-in-the-blanks
with the correct form, sentence-rewrite, sentence-combining, and multiple
choice), (3) completion task, (4)
elicited imitation (to have the researcher read to the subjects a particular
set of sentences containing examples of the structure under study. The subject
is asked to imitate each sentence after it is read., (5) elicited translation,
(6) guided composition, (7) question and answer –with stimulus, (8)
reconstruction, (9) communication games, (10) role play, (11) oral interview,
(12) free composition.
What is intuitional data elicitation procedure?
It is the procedure for
getting at learners’ intuitions.
What is the data obtained using intuitional data elicitation procedure?
Some call it data on learners’ competence (the speaker-hearer’s knowledge
of his language) or metalinguistic
judgment data or intutional data.
Mention the elicitation procedures used to get at learner’s intuition!
They are: (1) error recognition and correction, (2) grammaticality
judgments, (3) Other judgement tasks, (4) card scoring.
What is the instrumentation using of miniature languages?
In this procedure subjects have been exposed to a set of sentences of a
miniature artificial language created by the researcher. Mc Laughlin (1980 in
Larsen Freeman & Long, 1991:35)) has made the case for the use of miniature
artificial languages to study the process of second language acquisition.
Instrumentation has not only been
used in SLA research to elicit learner speech or intuitions. It has been used
to research affective variables such as attitudes and motivation as well.
Mention five procedures most commonly used to study this area.
They are: (1) questionnaires,
(2) sociometry, (3) matched guise technique, (4)
diary study, and (5) focused
introspection.
What are the instruments from other disciplines?
They are: (1) various tests (from psychology) to discover subjects’
cognitive styles, various personality assessment measures (from psychology),
dichotic listening tests and eye movement observation to research brain
function and hemisphericity (from neurolinguistics).
What did the prevailing view hold about language proficiency?
The view held that language proficiency can be divided into unrelated
skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) and knowledge of language
components (vocabulary, phonology and grammar).
What is Oller view (1976) the language proficiency?
His hypothesizes that a language proficiency is a unitary and indivisible
trait, i.e. it cannot be partitioned into distinct components. Oller (Oller and
Perkins 1978; Oller 1979) claimed this global proficiency factor was strongly
related to IQ.
What is CALP ?
CALP is cognitive/academic
language proficiency (Cummins, 1980: 176)
What is BICS?
It is a second, independent dimension of language proficiency which is
called basic interpersonal skills, which consist of accent, oral fluency and
sociolinguistic competence.
What are three components to communicative competence (Canale and Swain,
1980)?
They are grammatical
competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence.
What does a speaker’s having strategic competence mean?
It means a speaker has a repertoire of communication strategies to invoke
to compensate for breakdowns in communication.
What are five areas of
communicative competence ?
They are linguistic form, pragmatic/functional competence,
propositional content (meaning), interactional patterns and strategic
competence.
What are the examples of interactional patterns?
They are conversational rules
governing how speakers procure and relinquish turns.
What are the other four components of communicative competence (Canale,
1983)?
They are (1) grammatical competence, (2) sociolinguistic competence, (3)
discourse competence, and (4) strategic competence.
What are two superordinate types of competence and four subordinate types?
They are organizational and
pragmatic (superordinate) and grammatical, discourse, illucutionary and
sociolinguistic.(subordinate).
What is an acquisition point?
Acquisition (of a form, only, not its function) means the first appearance
of that form in the learner’s language.
What are the differences between a test and task?
Tests are devised to measure what the learner knows and does not know of
the target language. A test is normative. A task is devised to reveal what the
learner knows: ‘the rulees he is using and the systems and categories he is
working with (Corder, 1981:60) We may be able to infer something about the
learner’s rules, systems and categories from test results.
What are
types of analyses of SLA data used in an attempt to come to a better
understanding of the second language acquisition process?
They are:
(1) contrastive analysis, (2) error analysis, (3) performance analysis, and (4)
discourse analysis
What is
contrastive analysis?
Contrastive
analysis is conducted by systematically comparing two languages. “The most
efficient materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of
the language to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of
the native language of the learner’ (Charles Fries, 1945: 9) Lado claimed that
‘those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him,
and those elements that are different will be difficult’ (1957: 2) ‘The greater
the difference between two systems, i.e. the more numerous the mutually
exclusive forms and patterns in each, the greater is the learning problem and
the potential area of interference’ Weinrich (1953: 1).
What was the
view of learning of behaviorism?
The behaviorists held that language
acquisition was a product of habit formation.
What is
error analysis?
It is the procedure to detecting the
source of error, namely error analysis.
What is
strong version of the contrastive analysis?
The strong
version involved predicting errors in second language learning based upon an a
priori contrastive analysis of L1 and L2, and as we have seen, the predictions
are not always borne out.
What is a
weak version of CAH?
It is the method in which the
researchers start with learner errors and explain at least a subset of them by
pointing to the similarities and differences between the two languages.
What are the
types of error?
There are
Interlingua inference, Intralingua (overgeneralization), simplification
(redundancy reduction), communication based, and induced errors
What is
performance analysis?
Performance
analysis is an analysis of the learners’ I (first) L performance, not limited
to analyzing the errors they commit.
What is a
morpheme study?
It is one of
performance analysis (PA) The study of scoring protocols of subjects’ speech
for suppliance of grammatical morphemes in obligatory context, i.e. contexts
where the TL requires a particular linguistic structure, such as plural marker
at the end of a common English noun preceded by a cardinal number.
What is
developmental sequence?
It is
another type of PA. Investigation of developmental sequences has involved a
longitudinal study in which the speech of one or more subjects is recorded and
the transcripts are analyzed for particular structures
.
What are
learner’s strategies?
Another
contribution of the developmental studies was the identification of strategies
employed by SL learners.
What is the
study of acquisition of forms and functions?
It is the
study of the acquisition of forms and function of TL by the learners. It is
obvious that one cannot generally claim that the function is acquired before
the form or that the form is acquired before the function’ ‘Learners do not
learn all the functions of a particular form at the same time’ (Bahns and Wode,
1980).
What is
formulaic utterances study?
The study of how the formulaic utterances
acquisition affects SLA.
What is
discourse analysis?
It is the study of input to the learner.
What is
conversational analysis?
Conversational analysis is one sub-area
of discourse analysis.
What are
other applications of discourse analysis?
Discourse
analysis has allowed the investigation of the relationship between NS input and
learner IL forms. Another quality of discourse analysis applied to SLA is that
researchers are concerned not only with how IL forms evolve, but how learners
learn how to use the forms appropriately for a particular discourse function as
well.
What are SLA
areas of investigation using discourse analysis?
They are:
(1) foreigner talk discourse, (2) coherence and cohesion (how SL learners learn
to comprehend and produce these texts, contrastive rhetorical analysis), (3)
communicative strategies, (4) contextual analysis, (5) classroom discourse
analysis, (6) discourse/functional analysis, (7) speech act analysis.
What are
factors that have an influence on the SLA process?
They are:
age, language aptitude, social-psychological factors, personality, cognitive
style, hemisphere specialization, learning strategies, and few others.
What are
age-causes of related differences in SLA?
They are:
(1) social-psychological explanation, (2) cognitive explanation, (3) input explanation,
(4) neurological explanation.
What is aptitude?
Aptitude as
a concept corresponds to the notion that in approaching a particular learning
task or program, the individual may be thought of as possessing some current
state of capability of learning that task – if the individual is motivated, and
has the opportunity of doing so. That capability is presumed to depend on some
combination of more or less enduring characteristics of the individual
(Carroll, 1981:84).
What are the
four independent abilities of foreign language aptitude?
They are:
(1) phonetic coding ability – an ability to identify distinct sounds, to form
associations between those sounds and symbols representing them, and to retain
these associations; (2) grammatical sensitivity – the ability to recognize the
grammatical functions of words (or other linguistic entities) in sentence
structures; (3) rote learning ability for foreign language materials – the ability to learn associations between
sound and meanings rapidly and efficiently, and to retain these associations;
and (4) inductive language learning ability – the ability to infer or induce
the rules governing a set of language materials, given samples of language
materials that permit such inferences
(Carroll, 1962 in 1981: 105)
What is
MLAT?
It is a test
of language aptitude. It is designed by Carroll and Sapon to measure foreign
language aptitude in adolescents and adults. It stands for Modern Language
Aptitude Test.
What are the
five subtests of MLAT?
They are:
(1) number learning, (2) phonetic script, (3) spelling clues, (4) words in
sentences, and (5) paired associates
.What is
another well-known language aptitude test?
It is Pimsleur’s Language Aptitude
Battery (LAB) (1966a) which is designed for adolescents.
What does
the LAB test consist of?
It consists
of six parts: (1) grade point average, (2) interest, (3) vocabulary, (4)
language analysis, (5) sound discrimination, and (6) sound-symbol
correspondence. These six parts are designed to tap the three components of
language aptitude Pimsleur alleges to exist (1966:182): (1) verbal
intelligence, which measure familiarity with words and an ability to
reason analytically about verbal
material (van Els et.al.1984), (2) motivation, (3) auditory ability.
What is
CALP?
It is Cummins’s (1979) cognitive/academic
language proficiency.
What is
BICS?
It is Cummins’s basic interpersonal
communication skills.
What are
social-psychological factors?
They are
motivation (integrative motivation and instrumental motivation), Attitude(
parents, peers, learning situation, teachers, and etnicity).
What are the
factors of personality?
They are:
(1) self-esteem, (2) extroversion, (3) anxiety,(4) risk taking,(5) sensitivity
to rejection, (6) empathy, (7) inhibition, (8) tolerance of ambiguity.
What is
cognitive style?
It is
closely aligned with personality, the preferred way in which individuals
process information or approach a task.
What are the
kinds of cognitive style?
They are (1)
field independence/ dependence, (2) category width, (3) reflectivity/impulsivity, (4) aural/visual,
(5) analytic/gestalt.
What is
lateralization?
Lateralization
is a process whereby each of the two hemispheres of the brain becomes
increasingly specialized. In almost all right-handed individuals, and
approximately two-thirds of left-handed individuals, the left hemisphere specializes
in logical, analytic thought which is processed linearly, e.g. subjects can
report which of the stimuli came first in a sequence. The left hemisphere is
also responsible for abstraction from a field (Harnett 1975).
What are
learning strategies?
Learning
strategies means the ‘techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire
knowledge’
What are the
other terms for learning strategies?
They are:
‘learning behaviors’ (Wesche, 1977); ‘cognitive processes’ (Rubin, 1981);
‘tactics’ (Seliger, 1984).
What are
good language learners?
Good
language learners have the following characteristics: (1) those who willing and
accurate guessers who have a strong desire to communicate, and will attempt to
do so even at the risk of appearing foolish, (2) they are highly motivated to
communicate, they also tend to form and meaning, (3) they practice and monitor
their own speech and the speech of others.
What are the
other factors have claimed to affect SLA?
They are:
(1) memory, awareness, will, (2) language disability (if students suffered from
specific language disorders such as dyslexia or strephosymbolia, (3) interest,
(4) sex, (5) birth order, (6) prior experience
THEORIES IN
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
What are the
theories in second language acquisition?
There are
three major classes of theories in second language acquisition: nativist,
environmentalist and interactionist.
What is a
set of laws?
A common
form theories, when the observations have been repeated and patterns consistent
that of a set of laws.
What are the
purposes of theory?
Theories are
involving a claim to explain the phenomena, or the way they interact. And aims
at an understanding of phenomena
.
When is the
generalization taken?
The
statements would have the status of generalization or of laws, depending on the
number and (especially) the uniformity of the observations which supported
them, as well as on the degree of consensus among experts as to their truth.
Generalizations allow for exceptions, laws do not. This form of theory is known
as the set-of-laws form.
What is a
hypothesis?
It is a
prediction about relationship among variables which not only was testable, but
repeatedly was tested against data, i.e. as a statement which was empirically fallible.
What is by
‘the studies are still only descriptive?’
The ‘issue’ addressed appearing to have
occurred to investigator after the data were collected.
What are correlation
studies?
The studies which purport to resolve
issue, as opposed to providin explanatory survey of them.
What is a
theory?
A theory is
a more or less formal, more or less explicit, synthesis of what is ‘known’ at a
given point in time about some natural phenomena, such as the factors involved
in SLA.
What is
knowledge?
‘Knowledge’,
and hence a theory, in other words, sometimes simply refers to what has been
discovered through empirical observation.
What are
nativist theories?
Nativist
theories are those which purport to explain acquisition by positing an innate
biological endowment that makes learning possible.
What is
Chomsky’s Universal Grammar?
Universal
Grammar (UG) claim the idea that humans are innately (i.e. genetically) endowed
with universal language-specific knowledge.
According to
Chomkyan view, the input is deficient, or “poor” in two ways. What are they?
First, it is
claimed to be ‘degenerate’ in the sense that it is marred by performance
features therefore an inadequate data base for language learning; second, and
more serious, however, the input is ‘degenerate’ in the sense that it is
inadequate in various ways.
What is
Krashen’s Monitor Theory?
Krashen
(1976) claimed that two separate knowledge systems underlay SL performance. The
first and most important, the acquired system,, and thesecond and less
important knowledge system, the learned system, was the product of formal
instruction.
What is the
acquisition-Learning Hypothesis?
It states that there are two independent
ways of learning an SL: acquisition and learning.
What is
‘acquisition’?
Acquisition
refers to the subconscious process used by children developing their first
language.
What is
learning?
Learning is
a conscious process, which results in a separate system of simple grammar
rules, or knowledge about the SL.
What is the
Natural Order Hypothesis?
The Natural
Order Hypothesis says that SL rules are acquired in a predictable order, one
apparently not determined solely by linguistic complexity, and certainly not by
the order in which the items appear in teaching syllabuses.
What is the
Monitor Hypothesis?
The Monitor
Hypothesis encapsulate the relationship posited between the acquired and
learned systems during SL performance.
What is the
Input Hypothesis?
The Input Hypothesis attempts to explain
how a learner acquires an SL.
What do
environmentalist theories hold?
Environmentalist
theories hold that an organism’s nurture, or experience, are of more importance
to development than its nature or innate contributions
What are the
examples of environmental theory?
They are the
various forms of behaviourist and neo-behaviouris stimulus- response learning
theories, such as those of Skinner (1957)
What are
interactions theories of SLA?
They invoke both innate and
environmentalist factor to explain language learning.
What is
functional-typological syntactic analysis?
It is an
approach which is functionalist in its
view that syntax ‘emanate[s] from properties of human discourse, and
typological in its consideration of a diverse body of languages, not simply a
single language or language family.
What does
Givon claim?
He claims
that syntactic change is driven primarily by psycholinguistic and pragmatic
principles relating to speech perception and production in face-to-face
interaction.
Why is it
multidimensional model?
It is called
the ‘multidimensional’ model because the original ZISA data revealed a second
dimension to SLA, along which learners differed, the variation axis
What is
ZISA?
It is one of
the most important bodies of SLA research to date is that emanating from the
Zweitsprachenwerb Italienischer und Spanischer Arbeiter (ZISA) project,
conducted chiefly at the University of Hamburg in the late 1970s under the
direction of Jurgen Meisel.
What is the
major goal for many SLA researchers?
It is to provide a sound
psycholinguistic basis for SL teaching.
What are the
various skills involved in the mastery of a language?
They are receptive skills, Listening
(understanding the spoken language) and reading (understanding the written
language); and productive skills –
speaking and writing.
To be able
to use language to convey thoughts/intentions/wishes/ information etc. a person
needs a mastery of various elements. What are the language elements?
The
individual sounds, which are arranged in words (the vocabulary, or lexis, of
the language), which are related to each other in utterances by structure (the
grammar of a language).
VARIABEL
Variabel.
Salah satu konsep yang sangat penting dalam penelitian adalah variabel.
Variabel adalah konsep - kata benda yang berarti variasi dalam satu kelas
objek, misalnya kursi, jenis kelamin, warna mata, pencapaian, motivasi, atau kecepatan lari. Variabel dapat
diklasifikasi dengan beberapa cara.
Salah satunya ialah dengan membedakan antara variabel kuantitatif dan kategori.
Variabel
kuantitatif berada dalam derajat sepanjang kontinum dari “kurang” atau “lebih”,
dan kita dapat memberi angka pada individu atau objek yang berbeda untuk
memperlihatkan berapa banyak variabel yang mereka miliki. Misalnya: tinggi,
berat atau minat orang dapat diberi angka.
Variabel
kuantitatif dapat dibagi lagi menjadi
unit-unit yang lebih kecil. “Panjang”, misalnya, dapat diukur dalam meter atau
mil, yard, kaki, inci, dan lain-lain.
Sebaliknya
dalam derajat, jumlah, atau kuantitas, tetapi secara kualitatif berbeda,
misalnya warna mata, jenis kelamin, keyakinan agama, pekerjaan, posisi dalam
main bola, dan kebanyakan “perlakukan” atau “metode” penelitian.
Variabel
bebas (independent variable), misalnya perlakukan atau variabel yang
dimanipulasi, yaitu variabel yang dipilih dan diteliti untuk menilai
akibat yang mungkin di timbulkannya terhadap variabel (-variabel) lainnya.
Variabel bebas diasumsikan mempunyai pengaruh, atau efek terhadap variabel
lain.
Variabel
yang diasumsikan memperoleh akibat atau
pengaruh dari variabel bebas disebut variabel terikat (dependent variable).
Variabel dan
konstruk. Sebuah variabel adalah apa yang dapat kita amati atau kuantifikasi
dari karakteristik atau kemampuan manusia/subjek yang bersangkutan, sedangkan
konstruk adalah karakteristik atau kemampuan sebenarnya, yang abstrak, dari
manusia/subjek yang digambarkan atau diwakili
variabel. Misalnya profisiensi dalam bahasa Inggris, adalah sesuatu yang dalam kepala manusia, dan ini
sulit diamati dan bisa berbeda dari
pengamatan tidak langsung yang dilakukan peneliti (misalnya , skor tes sebagai
hasil tes profisiensi bahasa Inggris). Konstruk profisiensi dalam bahasa
Inggris ( kemampuan manusia sebenarnya)
dapat digambarkan dengan skor tes profisiensi bahasa Inggris (apa yang dapat kita amati dan
dapat kita ukur dari konstruk yang kita cari). Namun jangan lupa bahwa skor
bukan kemampuan tetapi hanya cerminan
dari kemampuan.
Operasionalisasi.
Operasionaliasi variabel merupakan kesempatan bagi peneliti untuk menjelaskan
bagaimana setiap variabel yang sedang didefinisikan berkaitan dengan konstruk
yang dicari. Definisi oerasional harus mengambil variabel dari wilayah teori
dan menempatkannya secara utuh dalam realitas kongkrit. Pada dasarnya, variabel
harus merupakan definisi yang didasarkan pada karakteristik yang bisa diamati,
bisa dites atau diuji, atau dikuantifikasi. Maka sebuah definisi
operasional harus unik, atau ekslusif.
Definisi operasional jangan bisa dipakai untuk konstruk lain. Contoh
konstruk “overall proficiency in English
as a foreign language” masih merupakan abstraksi yang luas. Untuk menjadikan konstruk
ini menjadi bentuk sebuah variabel, peneliti harus memilih dengan
mendefinisikannya menjadi “overall proficiency in English as a foreign language
as measured by the Test of English as a
Foreign Language”. Hasil suatu penelitian tidak akan logis bila
variabel-variabelnya didefinisikan secara keliru atau kuarng baik.
Variabel
moderator. Variabel moderator adalah jenis tertentu dari variabel bebas yang
dipilih peneliti untuk menentukan bagaimana hubungan antara variebl bebas dan
variabel terikat dipengaruhi, atau
dimodifikasi, oleh variabel moderator. Perbedaan terpenting antara variabel
bebas dan variabel moderator terletak pada bagimana peneliti memandang setiap
variabel dalam penelitiannya. Variabel bebas kepentingannya terletak pada
hubungan langsung dengan variabel terikat, sedangkan variabel moderator
terletak pada pengaruh dari hubungan tersebut.
Variabel
kontrol. Variabel kontrol adalah variabel yang telah dipilih agar tetap,
netral, atau hilang sehingga variabel tersebut tidak akan mempengaruhi
penelitian
Variabel
intervening. Variabel intervening, yang terjadi di antara dua kejadian, adalah
variabel abstrak, label teoretis hubungan atau proses yang menghubung kan
variabel bebas dan variabel terikat.
kedudukan
masing-masing variable dalam penelitian (kuantitatif)
|
VARIABEL
BEBAS
|
|
Variabel Moderator
|
|
Variabel Intervening
|
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VARIABEL
TERIKAT
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Variabel
Kontrol
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Dalam gambar
di atas hubungan sentral dalam
penelitian adalah antara variabel bebas dan variabel terikat. Tanda panah memperlihatkan arah fokus dalam pikiran
dan rancangan penelitian.
Penelitian
dirancang untuk menentukan pengaruh variabel bebas terhadap variabel terikat.
THE LIST OF
STRUCTURAL POINTS
(as
dependent variables)
Beginners
To be { Affirmative; Interrogative; Negative;
Question tag} also question words: Who? What? Where? Why?
Indefinite
article with occupations: I’m a doctor.
This/that,
these/those
Singular and
plural nouns, regulars + irregulars.
Imperative
and negative imperative.
Adjectives
and word order.
Present
Continuous: He’s playing.
To have
(got).
(a)
Possessive adjectives, e.g. It’s my book. (b) ‘Whose?’
Possessive
pronouns.
Genitive
with people (singular and plural), e.g. It’s Susan’s. The Browns’.
Genitive
with things, e.g. The back of the car.
Present
Simple: He works, etc.
Frequency
adverbs: often, never, sometimes, always, etc.
There
is/there are.
There’s a/
it’s a.
Some/any/question
and negative.
Simple
prepositions.
I can.
The time.
Was/Were
Simple Past
tense
Simple Past
tense in irregular verbs.
The weather
(a) as adjectives: It’s cloudy, rainy, fine, etc. (b) The weather as Present
Continuous/Present Simple contrast: It’s raining/ It rains a lot.
Future with
‘going to’.
Adverb formation
+ ly.
Adverb order
(manner, place, time)
He works
{hard; at home; every evening}
A
lot/much/many.
A
little/few.
Future +
will + negative.
Questions +
shall we.
More
complicated frequency adverbs + revision Present Simple, e.g. hardly ever,
nearly, always, etc.
Past
Continuous
Contrast: Past Simple + while
While he was writing, the door opened.
1st
(open) Conditional: if it rains we’ll go to the cinema.
Elementary
Present
Perfect + ‘just’.
Present
Perfect + for} – simple and continuous
Present
Perfect + since } – simple and continuous
Present
Perfect contrasted with Past Simple: I’ve been there/I was there yesterday.
Present
Perfect + ‘already’.
Present
Perfect Question + ‘yet’.
Too/enough.
Simple
(short-word) comparatives.
Long-word
comparatives + ‘more’.
Simple
superlatives.
Long-word
superlatives + ‘most’ + in… + of the
three etc.
Relatives…who
(subject) That (subject) Omission
(object), after ‘the one’, ‘the ones’.
Used to e.g.
Did you use to? I never used to.
Must/mustn’t
Must/needn’t.
As…as +
adjectives.
As …as =
adverbs.
The same…as.
Can/will be
able to.
Want to …
Want + Acc.
+ to.
Prepositions
with time.
Reported
commands, e.g. He told me not to …
Reported
commands in negative, e.g. He told me not to…
Must/will
have to.
Must/had to.
May,
permission and possibility.
Phrasal
verbs (simple) + word order in pronouns.
Present
Continuous for Future.
Although.
Infinitive
of purpose.
So that.
For +
gerund.
Unless + 1st
Conditional.
Temporal
conjunctions (a) Present simple – When I go..
(b)
Present Perfect – When I’ve been…
Need +
gerund
Intermediate
2nd
Conditional: If I went to Russia, I’d visit Moscow.
Adjective
and infinitive: It’s pleasant to live in the country.
Reported
speech – Future to Conditional- Present
to Past, etc
Reported questions
(a) with Question. Word (b) with
if/whether.
Adjective
phrases + participle, e.g. A man carrying a gun…
Noun
clauses, e.g. I don’t know what to do/how to say it, etc.
Passive –
all simple tenses. all continuous (+ being) tenses
Passive
Infinitive + can, must, should, need to, etc.
He must be a
policeman (log. Conclusion)
Think, hope,
suppose, expect + so.
Should} Or }
for obligation
Ought }
Use of ‘the’
Abstracts
Plurals.
Uncountable
Meals
Countries
Hospital/ prison/ bed, etc after
prepositions.
Reflexive
verbs.
Past Perfect
(a) after certain conjunctions, e.g.
after, before, because, as soon as.
(b) following ‘realized’,
‘remembered’, ‘visited’.
Past Perfect
Continuous.
Verbs +
gerund, e.g. finish/enjoy, etc.
Verbs +
infinitive (+to).
Verbs +
preposition + gerund.
Future
Continuous.
Say/tell.
Difference
between so + adjectives and such + noun.
Have + do
(habit), e.g. I don’t have lunch.
Inversion…SO
(a) can I. (b) do I.
Inversion
…Neither do I.
Future
Perfect Simple.
Future
Perfect Continuous.
Word order +
adverb phrases (manner, place, time)
Advanced
Be/get used
to + gerund in various tenses.
Uses of
either/neither.
Make (=
construct).
Do
(activity).
Suggest ( +
subjunctive) in Present + Past.
{I meant to
…(but)… {I was going to …
(a) {am} {
meant/supposed} to… (b) {was}{ meant/supposed} to …
Let + object
+ verb.
Make +
object + verb. (Contrast: be made to do).
(a) I wish}
+_ seq. of tenses. (b) If only} + seq. of tenses.
3rd
Conditional.
Remember +
ing} + to}
Try + ing}
+to }
Stop + ing}
+ to)
He must have
gone out.
He must have
been going out.
He can’t
have {gone {been going out.
He might
have {gone {been going out.
(a) needn’t
have, (b) didn’t need to.
Surely/certainly.
Fairly/rather.
It’s {high}
time we left. {about} time we left.
I’d rather
you took ()my old umbrella).
I saw a man
cross/crossing the road.
READING FOR
ENJOYMENT
(as
readability level)
Beginners:
Longman Structural Readers à Stage I
Mid
Elementary : (1) Longman Structural Readers à Stage 2 (2) O.U.P
Elementary/Early
Intermediate: (1) New Method Supplementary Readersà Stage 4 (2) Longman Structural
Readers à Stage 2/3
Mid
Intermediate: Longman Structural Readersà Stage ¾
Late
Intermediate: (1) Collier Macmillan
(2) Hienemann
Educational Books.
(3) Longman
Structural Readersà Stage 6
(4) New Method
Supplementary Readersà Stage 3
Intermediate/Advanced:
(1) Hutchinson Educational Books
(2) Penguin
(3) Longman Simplified English Series
(4) Macmillan
Advanced:
(1) O.U.P. (2) Penguin
VOCABULARY
(as
dependent variables)
1. Choosing
vocabulary
Commonest
words
Students’
needs.
Students’
language
Word
building
Topic areas
Cross
reference
Related
structures (Haycraft, 1976:47)
2.
Presenting new vocabulary (as independent variable)
In context
Create a
context
Descriptions
or definition
Outside the
classroom
Objects
Drawing
Mime
Opposites
Synonyms
Translation
Picture/flashcard
Wall charts
Word games
3. Combining
vocabulary teaching with structure and pronunciation revision
4. Passive
vocabulary
5. Phrases,
idioms and colloquial expressions
AUDIO-VISUAL
AIDS
(as independent
variable)
Objects
People
The
blackboard
Flash cards
Wall charts
Pictures for
oral composition
Overhead
projector transparencies
Slides and
film strips
Film Video
Tape
recorders
The language
laboratory
The computer
The internet
TEACHING
PRONUNCIATION
(as
dependent variables)
Static forms
Word Stress
Sounds
Consonants
(bi-labial, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar –voiced/voiceless, plosive,
affricate, fricative, nasal, lateral).
Vowels
(tongue level, part of tongue, length, lips)
Diphthongs
The phonetic
alphabet
Word linking
Expressive
forms
Sentence
stress
Unstressed
syllables and words – Weak forms
Voice range
Longer
sentences
Intonation
pattern
Tone and
tempo
Fluency
LISTENING
PRACTICE
(as
independent variables)
Distinguishing
between key sound, stress, and intonation patterns
Quick
questions
Comprehension
passages
Broadcasts
Lectures
Dictations
SPEAKING
PRACTICE
(as
independent variables)
Maximise
student-talking
Pair-work
and group-work
Information
gaps and the jigsaw principle
The Pyramid
(Haycraft,1978:82)
Find two
people in a crowd with something in common.
Dialogues
Chain
stories
Mime stories
Telling
jokes
Talk/lecturettes
Conversation
Role playing
and improvisation
APPROACHES
AND METHODS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING
(as
independent variables)
Approach, method
and techniques (Anthony, 1963)
The Oral
Approach and Situational Language Teaching
The Audio-lingual
Method
Communicative
Language Teaching
Total
Physical Response
The Silent
Way
Community
Language Learning
The Natural
Approach
Suggestopedia
Language in
general and the languages and related cultures and societies
Sociolinguistics
Psycholinguistics
Semantics
Syntax
ESP
Interpreting
Literature
Translation
Curriculum
Evaluation
Etc.
WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
The seven
steps of a research proposal:
Step 1:
Formulation of a research problem
Step 2:
Conceptualization of a research design
Step 3:
Construction of a research tool (instrument)
Step 4: Selection
of sample
Step 5: Data
collection
Step 6: Data
analysis
Step 7
Report writing
Step 1:
Formulation of a Research Problem is the first and most important step in the
research process. It is like identifying your destination before undertaking a
journey. A research problem identifies your destination. What is that you
intend to research. It is extremely important that you evaluate your research
problem within the context of the financial resources at your disposal, the
time available, and you own and your research supervisor’s expertise and knowledge
in the field of study.
Step 2: The
most important thing about research is the use of appropriate methods in systematic
way. When selecting a research design, it is important to ensure that it is
valid, workable, and manageable.
Step 3: A
research tool is a means of collecting information for your study. For example,
questionnaires, interview schedules, observation forms and interview guides.
Step 4: The accuracy of your research results
largely depends upon the way in which you select your sample. Sampling theory
is guided by two principles: (1) the avoidance of bias in the selection of a
sample, (2) the attainment of maximum precision for a given outlay of resources
Step 5: Many
methods could be used to gather the needed information.
Step 6: Before
analyzing your data, you need to take the following steps: (1) Editing, checking
the questionnaires/interview schedules for incompleteness and inconsistencies,
(2) Development of a codebook, developing a set of rules to classify responses
and giving the numerical value, (3) Coding of data. Assigning numerical values
to responses
Step 7:
Writing the report is the last step in the research process
CONTENT OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research
proposal should outline the various tasks that you plan to undertake to fulfill
your research objectives. It should contain:
A statement
of the objectives of the study
A list of
hypotheses, if you are testing any
The research
design which you are proposing to use
The setting
of your study
The research
instrument(s) that you are planning to use
Information
on sample size and sampling design
Information
on data processing procedures
An outline
of the proposed chapters for the report
The study’s
(research) problems and limitation
A proposed
time frame.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND
RESEARCH REPORT
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Research
Proposal
A research
proposal communicates a researcher’s plan for a study.
A research
report communicates what actually done in a study, and what resulted.
The main
body is the largest section of a proposal or a report and generally includes
(1) the problem to be investigated (including the statement of the problem or
question, the research hypotheses and variables, and the definition of the
terms); (2) the review of literature; (3) the procedures (including a
description of the sample, the instruments to be used, the research design,
the procedures to be followed, and the description and a justification of the
statistical procedures used- for quantitative); (4) and a budget of expected
cost (for formal proposal).
The
essential difference between a research proposal and a research report is
that a research report states what was done rather than what will be done and
includes the actual results of the study. Thus, in a report, a description of
the findings pertinent to each of the research hypotheses or questions is
presented, along with a discussion by the researcher of what the findings of
the study imply for overall knowledge and current practice.
Normally,
the final section of a report is the offering of some suggestions for further
research. All sections of a research proposal or a research report should be
consistent with one another.
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THE
CORRELATION BETWEEN STUDENTS’ SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND THEIR ENGLISH
ACHIEVEMENT.
Is there any
correlation between students’ social economic background and their English
achievement?
Ho: There is
no correlation between students’ social economic background and their English
achievement.
H1: There is
a correlation between students’ social economic background and their English
achievement.
Accepted or
rejected?
Correlation
: Using statistical interpretation, for example The pearson product-moment
correlation coefficient. To test the null hypothesis of no significant
relationship (H0 : r xy = 0) at r < ,01.
COMPARING
MEANS
The
comparison between teaching ….. by using …. And
…. At ….
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